Both Eastern and Western civilisations have explored how to truly realise ‘the people as the foundation’

By Han Xiao

Over 2,400 years ago, during the time of the Peloponnesian War that engulfed Greece, the leader of the Greeks, Pericles, delivered his famous ‘Funeral Oration’ to commemorate the soldiers who died in the war one year ago. He passionately praised the greatness of Athenian democracy, which originated around 510 BCE when the people of Athens, under the leadership of Cleisthenes, overthrew the rule of the aristocracy and tyrants. The greatness of Athenian democracy lay in the fact that political power was in the hands of all citizens, not just a few individuals. Everyone was equal under the law, and public office was held not because of belonging to a special class, but due to genuine talent. Pericles claimed that “Athens is the school of all Greece,” because every citizen exhibited excellence, able to independently decide policies for their own state.

Around the same time, in the East, the Chinese Confucian school was also advocating the idea of “the people as the foundation” amidst the turmoil of war. This concept is recorded in the Book of Documents, where a king’s brother from the Xia Dynasty, dating back to the 22nd to 21st century BCE, admonishes Shaokang, the king: “The people are the foundation of a state; when the foundation is solid, the state is in peace.” Ancient Chinese sages even elevated the idea of putting the people first to an ontological level. The Book of Documents mentions: “What the people desire, Heaven will be found to give effect to.” Confucius, the founder of the Confucian school, inherited these views. As recorded in the Book of Rites, Confucius once said, “The ruler is the heart of the people, and the people are the body of the king.” Another important Confucian figure, Mencius, offered a statement that profoundly shaped the Chinese political tradition: “The people are the most important element in a nation; the spirits of the land and grain are the next; the sovereign is the lightest.” (Mencius – Jin Xin II). When meeting King Hui of Liang, who sought advice on beneficial strategies for his state, Mencius firmly responded: “The king should only prioritise benevolence and righteousness, not profit” (Mencius – Liang Hui Wang I). If a benevolent government is enacted, ensuring the elderly have clothes and food, and the people are not hungry or cold, then they will naturally follow, and the ideal rule will be achieved. The ultimate goal of political life is to ensure a good life for the people, a consistent ideal in ancient Chinese politics. Today, China continues to uphold the idea of “the people as the foundation”. “Whole-process people’s democracy,” as the essential attribute of socialist democratic politics and the essential requirement of Chinese path to modernisation, emphasises that matters of common concern should be collectively discussed by all. It integrates the collective pursuit of a better life into every aspect of political life through the process of seeking consensus.

Thankfully, ‘democracy’ is now a shared value of humanity and a noble goal of the United Nations, reaching widespread consensus, marking significant progress in human civilisation. Tracing the roots of the concept of ‘democracy’ back to the origins of Eastern and Western civilisations helps us see the rich connotations of democracy and explore further possibilities for its development today.

Virtue politics and more effective democracy

Both Eastern and Western civilisations have explored how to truly realise “the people as the foundation.” Today, many countries adopt representative democracy, which is chosen after extensive practice, considered as the most effective form of modern democracy. However, representative democracy may also face the risk of failure. Insights from ancient civilisations might provide some guidance.

In ancient Athens, direct democracy was practised, allowing adult male Athenian citizens meeting age requirements to participate in the citizen assembly (Ekklesia), the state’s highest authority, and hold political office. People could freely debate and vote on council-proposed topics; importantly, public officials were chosen by lot from the assembly, ensuring power was not concentrated in the hands of the wealthy or elite. However, this system had its issues. Socrates was accused of “impiety” and “corrupting the youth” for philosophically reflecting on the foundations of the political life, ultimately being sentenced to death by the city-state’s jury, marking a perceived decline of Athenian democracy into “mob rule.” Plato saw the potential danger in democracy, where producers or citizens might only follow their desires, leading to chaos and potentially devolving into tyranny. In this context, Aristotle distinguished between regimes with virtues and those without in his political theory. In forms of majority rule, if people only cared for their own class’s interests, disregarding the political community as a whole, democratic politics would decline. This posed questions for later political philosophers: how to ensure the political body represents the interests of the majority without descending into tyranny by the majority or chaotic disarray? Aristotle advocated for a mixed government based on a middle class. On one hand, “the more thorough and balanced the mix of elements in a republican regime, the longer the regime will last” (Politics, 1297a6-7); on the other hand, the more virtuous the citizens, the more stable the regime, leading to reasonable decisions. The best regime consists of virtuous citizens collectively participating in political life according to their traits and specialties, undertaking appropriate roles as they age. Therefore, “each fulfilling their role” and the cultivation of virtue jointly form a more effective democratic system.

Ancient China similarly faced the challenge of ensuring a polity genuinely adhered to “the people as the foundation.” The core of Confucian thought relies on ‘ethical norms’ to define roles within both political and social communities, determining rights and duties. For example, children benefit from parental love but ought to respect their parents. Conversely, parents have authority but should also fulfill their educational duties. The same relationship applies to rulers and officials, and between rulers and their people. Firstly, rulers must recognise that their power originates from the people; thus, ancient China has the saying “Water can both carry and capsize a boat.” Secondly, rulers must fulfill their responsibilities. Xunzi said, “Heaven appoints rulers for the sake of the people.” Dong Zhongshu, echoing this sentiment, expressed: “Heaven does not create people for the king, but appoints a king for the people. Therefore, Heaven grants leadership to those whose virtue brings the people peace, and removes it for the wicked” (Chun qiu fan lu). Thirdly, rulers and people are mutually dependent and mutually beneficial. Confucius said, “Leading by virtue is like the North Star, remaining steadfast while others align.” Only if rulers cultivate their moral character and strengthen their capability of governing will people follow; otherwise, treating people as inconsequential leads to rebellious dissent. Meanwhile, individuals should also align personal development with family harmony, national prosperity, and global peace. The Confucian scholar-officials, a distinct class, played a political elite role – assisting rulers, serving the people, advising rulers on errors, and educating the people when needed. Ancient China similarly exhibited a harmonious political ideal of “each fulfilling their role.” Today, China’s whole-process people’s democracy emphasises the organic unity of procedural democracy and consequential democracy, procedural democracy and substantive democracy, direct democracy and indirect democracy, as well as the unity between people’s democracy and the will of the country. Proceeding from an overall perspective, it aims to enable all parts and levels of the country to widely participate in democracy and achieve harmony through consultation and interaction.

The journey toward perfecting democratic politics continues. Despite having developed sophisticated democratic forms, we face new challenges today. The wisdom of ancient Eastern and Western civilisations can enrich us, highlighting balanced, harmonious political ideals and the steady and enduring power of virtue in political life. •

Han Xiao: Institute of Philosophy, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences